NUCLEAR USE POLICY IN
SPACE AND ON EARTH: PART II
by Bruce Behrhorst
[ PART I ]
Policy and direction of
policy for large and small organizations is a simple indicator of how regressive
or progressive a course of action an organization wants to be in.
Policy is the reason given as a
measure were large organizations and their often conflicting 'Departmental
Policies' play a role which inadvertently causes foggy indecision toward clear
space funding objectives. Frequently these organizations develop mechanisms to
thwart criticism of wasting time and money from programs. In other words, policy
justifies rules and the means for existence.
The current trend in tailoring policy is to flatten organizational
hierarchies to make decision making more horizontal delegating more authority to
personnel to reduce transaction costs and improve profit margins this invariably
leads these organizations into becoming over time ever larger in order to manage
and operate. The problem is anti-hierarchal measures don't always work in the
drive to remedy hierarchy because excessive 'dialog' inevitably creates its own
bureaucracy and in centralizing power in fewer institutions has always meant
less flexibility in addressing new challenges and placing the organization in
more vulnerable positions from both external and internal disruption. Take for
example, the nuclear component of the U.S. National Space Policy it has taken
its turns in the last 4 to 5 decades culminating in the cancellation of Project
Prometheus the most recent incarnation of America's attempt at committing to
mission space nuclear technology and it's long over due.
A future space nuclear organization should be a completely separate entity
from the current NASA organization it should have total command and control of
every aspect of space operations from facilities for its development, to booster
capability at the launch pad, to in-space operations and personnel including
special astronauts trained on nuclear systems whenever any nuclear components
are involved. This organization's principles can be a quasi government/private
initiative who's focus would be more business friendly than NASA, readily
available to inform the public of its activites, advertise and engage investors
and the public it can be entitled: "Group for Space Nuclear Exploration and
Commerce" or "National Space Nuclear Agency" (NSNA).
THE NUCLEAR PART OF A U.S. NATIONAL
SPACE POLICY
In years past the emphasis on development of
space nuclear science was primarily under military policy and direction.
Depending on which view a reader with prior historical knowledge in the field of
nuclear space science might want to view the debate between a tool to use in
space exploration or the military strategy of superior weapons platforms in
space. The fact is nuclear systems for power and rocket propulsion were built
and some actually missioned beyond the wildest dreams of scientist and engineers
of the time. Still they marvel at data streams processing years after nuclear
space missions long since closed and officially declared a resounding success.
In August 2006 the Bush Administration (OSTP)
provided its view of an official direction with space policy specifically the
nuclear component of this policy, which has largely remained unchanged since the
Clinton Administration US-NSP in September 1996. Besides providing and addendum
that would in effect call for "The launch and use of non-government spacecraft
utilizing nuclear power sources." To that end a private company or consortium
would have to seek a DOE ad hoc Interagency Nuclear Safety Review Panel
determination, licensing from NRC and DOT besides White House approval. The US
Government would conduct safety analysis, evaluation and nuclear monitoring on a
fee-for-service basis, to the full extent of the law, where the private operator
will fully reimburse the US Government entity for services provided. It states,
the Secretary of Energy shall establish and implement policies and procedures to
protect sensitive information regarding the control, dissemination, and
declassification of space-related nuclear activities.
The problem with the US-NSP and its nuclear space component is a conflict
between its national security, homeland security and foreign policy objectives
with its goals of sustainable innovative human and robotic exploration to extend
human presence across the solar system and encouraging international cooperation
in a competitive commercial space sector. Although the newest version of the US-NSP
makes an attempt at acknowledging a future role for commercial activity in the
field of space science. Still, some would ask, what private entity would engage
in a dynamic civil nuclear space program with the US government ? If at its base
the space nuclear policy runs in all directions without a clear direction with
regard to open ended "fee-for-service" requirements and ITAR issues that
government has never made clear as to who would be chosen to participate with it
in this important space activity. It's no surprise that nuclear space research
and space activity will continue to be kept stunted by unreasonable indecision
based on politics from interests that care not to see real development in
nuclear space activity.
SPACE NUCLEAR "ENERGIZER
BUNNY" STILL PROVIDING CONTINIOUS POWER MORE THAN 30 YEARS
Challenges facing human and robotics existing
in a cold outer space environment can be addressed by providing the necessary
heat for conversion to electrical current to run science platforms on
spacecraft. This elegant concept has been put to use on some of the most distant
breathtaking images from earth and new space science data ever transmitted to
humans thus far to enjoy and study.
At some point acknowledging nuclear power sources that have enabled or
enhanced space missions like the Pioneer flights to Jupiter, Saturn and beyond;
the Voyager flights to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and beyond; the Apollo
Lunar Experiments, the Viking Lander to Mars; Ulysses mission to study the polar
regions of the Sun; the Galileo mission to Jupiter; The Cassini spacecraft on
station around the Saturian system; the latest mission to Pluto, New Horizons
and if that were not enough... All Rover missions thus far on Mars were assisted
with Nuclear Space Technology to include the Mars Science Lab
(MSL) Rover
slated for operations on Mars in 2010. Despite some misdirected criticism from a
low expectation "Do nothing in space" point of view. Placing blame that
describes space activity as just a waste of time and money or further still,
nuclear space power in any of its forms spells doom for human existence on
Earth. The choice for quality space power has always been elected to enable the
longevity of space operations are almost always "Nuked" in one form or another.
This tradition no doubt will follow humans and robots as they venture ever
distant from the home planet.
It is interesting to note that historically
after World War II the idea to use conventional power was in its infancy the
nuclear option for space power and propulsion was always a promise that it could
perform as well or better than other sources of space power technologies of the
period. It wasn't till 1951 in what was then the overseer of all that was
nuclear the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in its Mound Laboratory operated
by the Monsanto Research Corporation. Two researchers K.C. Jordan and J.H.
Birden built the first radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) in 1954 it
only produced 1.8 me of power it was enough to demonstrate the
feasibility of coupling radioisotopes with thermocouple-type (thermoelectric)
conversion system. Since 1961 the United States has successfully flown 41 RTGs
and one reactor to provide power for 24 space systems. The former Soviet Union
has reportedly flown least 35 nuclear reactors at least two RTGs to power 37
space platforms. Since 1958 when researchers at Johns Hopkins University Applied
Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) conceived the idea of a navigational satellite
based on Doppler shift tracking technology proposed a navy navigation satellite
system these navigation satellite technologies known as the Transit Program are
currently in use everyday by the general public as the Global Positioning System
(GPS). Early system satellites were solar powered and battery operated and it
wasn't until the AEC offering to power these satellites with an auxiliary
radioisotope power source known as SNAP 3B for its transit 4A and Transit 4B
satellites, thus was born an era of space nuclear power. With the success of
those early NAVSATS followed with Transits 5BN -1 and 5BN -2 JHU/APL flew full
'Nuked' powered navigational satellites each provided 25We
nominal 6V for 5 years in space after one year storage on earth. One of the
objectives of Transit 5BN series NAVSAT was to provide navigation to U.S. Navy
ships anytime anywhere in the world. This finally demonstrated that a
thermoelectric generator could be integrated into a vital satellite and to
provide uninterrupted electrical power and aided in thermal control of NAVSATS.
More NAVSAT like Transit TRIAD utilized RTG technology the first full dynamic
use of a specially built space reactor code name SNAP SHOT launched by the U.S.
Air Force from Vandenburg Air Force Base in April of 1965 the reactor was
designated SNAP-10A essentially a test of a fully automated space reactor. The
experiment required a 435Kg mini nuclear reactor produce 500We for
one year coupled to an Agena spacecraft in its 1307 Km journey in space it was
started up and operated flawlessly for 43 days until a failure of voltage
regulator in the Agena "spacecraft" caused a termination of power operations.
SNAP-10A demonstrated it was possible to remotely operate a liquid-metal-cooled
space nuclear reactor. Following NAVSATS meteorological satellites began to also
use RTG technology like SNAP-9A delivering 50 We to a regulated power
bus after one year in orbit. Human astronauts also came to seek the use of nukes
with the use of two 15 Wt radioisotope Heater Units (RHU) for warmth
for their early Apollo scientific Experimental Package (EASEP) power was by
solar cells. 5 ALSEPS (Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages) were placed on
the moon power for each was provide by a new RTG designated SNAP-27 at least
63.5 We at 16 -VDC for one year after lunar placement. All 5 ALSEP
SNAP-27 RTG'S for apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, 17 exceed their mission requirements in
both power and lifetime.
Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8 and 9 updated RTG technology
its goal to demonstrate in full scale operation each satellite was powered by
two RTG's of a new design able to generate Multi-Hundred Watts of power (MHW-RTG)
this class of RTG would later mark for power on interplanetary Voyager missions
this demonstrated RTG'S impressive advantage of physical survivability over
solar photovoltaic cell arrays technology. More interplanetary missions followed
with pioneers 10 and 11 with 13.6 kg SNAP 19 RTGs producing on average 40.3 We
per RTG at BOM (Beginning Of Mission) both also carried radioisotope heater
units RHUs to keep equipment warm without electromagnetic interference by
electrical heaters. The last signal from Pioneer 10 was received on January 22,
2003 more than 30 years after launch. Last signal from pioneer 11 was received
on September 1995. SNAP-19 RTG's selected for use on Mars with Viking Landers 1
& 2 not since 1975 did NASA chose to give scientist and the public its first
glimpse of the hostile enviornment of Mars 2 SNAP-19 RTG were selected to power
each Viking Lander the average BOM power for these 15.2 kg RTGs was 42.7 We
per RTG.
THROWING A 4 TON SPACECRAFT WITH A NUKE POWERED ROVER
TO MARS
NASA presently will power a moving nuked powered Mars Science
Laboratory (MSL) rover as a fully integrated laboratory with a total of 10
science instruments for science investigation. This is a part of a long-term
systematic approach of Mars scientific exploration under the Mars Exploration
Program (MEP) the goal of which is to answer the question, "Did life ever exist
on Mars?". Science objectives are to include an understanding of climate and the
volatile history of Mars, to inventory surface and subsurface geology and to
analyze the Martian environment qualitatively in preparation for human
exploration. Of course in light of recent
Mars photos taken by the a Mars remote high/low
resolution orbiting satellite camera around Mars launched November 7, 1996 near
the end of its operational period. Has shown evidence that liquid water might
flow freely on the Martian surface. If in fact that were case then the MEP
program would need to increase its scientific laboratory in subsequent rover
missions to include a mini drilling platform on sites deemed worthy of either
analyzing core samples on site or a return sample mission to categorically proof
water its composition and quantity. All would require more energy and battery
components to power future rovers. The proposal would be a first in remotely
operating the MSL rover powered by a radioisotope power system as its main
source of electrical power. The mission would be launched on an Atlas V or Delta
IV expendable lifter in the fall of 2009 and scheduled to perform a direct entry
into the Martian atmosphere land on Mars summer/fall of 2010.
The exact Mars landing site for the proposed MSL mission would
be selected in 2008 about a year before the planned launch. An interesting
feature in this mission is the planned entry, descent and landing phase of the
mission. Entry begins when the vehicle reaches an altitude of approximately 125
km (78 mi) above the surface of Mars and would end with a soft touch down on the
Martian surface. The planned scenario at entry is to allow for aero-maneuvering
techniques during the early portion of atmospheric flight in order to reduce
chances of missing the planned landing site target. Following parachute
deployment the heat shield would be released and the rover's wheels and under
carriage would be exposed and the landing radar initiated at 600 (m) meters
(1,970 ft) above the surface. Terminal descent engines would be fired to slow a
descending craft. At 20 m (66 ft) above the landing site surface the rover would
hang from a 'Skycrane' apparatus by tether and umbilical cable with wheels-down
the rover should make contact with the Martian surface within a landing zone
diameter of 20km (12.4 mi). once ground contact is made the skycrane cables are
cut and the decent stage is programmed to initiate a "fly away" procedure to
land a safe distance away from the MSL rover. This is a significant departure
from the 'Drop n' Flop' dynamic in low mass delivery to Mars surface. Aboard the
MSL rover will be equipped with key instruments like the Sample Analysis at Mar
(SAM) used to measure abundances of methane, water, CO2, CO, carbonyl sulfide,
H2O2 gases. Another is Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN) used in measurements at
various rover locations to determine hydrogen content and possible layering
structure of hydrogen bearing material in the subsurface. Both apart from visual
data (MASTCAM), CHEMCAM and an Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer would provide
some evidence of water on Mar's surface. MSL rover's electrical needs to power
the suite of 10 science platforms will be met with the first ever RTG attached
to a moving vehicle. This specially built MMRTG (Multi-mission-RTG) follows
along the lines in design and functionality of previous RTGs [SNAP-RTG>MTW-RTG>GPHS-RTG>MMRTG]
converts heat from a radioactive decay of disk shaped PUO2 (Plutonium Dioxide)
fuel pellet (melting point: (2,400 deg C) (4,352 deg F) packed in its graphite
impact shell and this is inserted into an armored aeroshell able to resist the
heat of Earth re-entry this in short makes up a single GPHS module a fully
loaded MSL rover MMRTG will have 8 GPHS (General Purpose Heat Source) modules
providing 123 We at BOM (beginning of mission), life time from BOM is
14 years the minimum for science operations is approximately 250 watt-hours. The
advantage of the MMRTG weighing < 45kg is the ability to operate at all
latitudes and longitudes of the martian surface and perform at least 74 landing
site sample processing compared to solar power limitations to specific
longitudes and latitude position with respect to line of solar light for photo
voltaic arrays. Both the MMRTG and its modified version attached to an Stirling
engine MMRTG-SRG are designed to operate in a range of environments that
includes Earth; Mars and deep space thus operating over a pressure range of at
least 1 atm down to vacuum over a sink temperature range of 269 - 31 deg C (4 -
304 K) and within atmospheres rich in O2, CO2 and N2. MMRTG and the SRG are the
multi-mission radioisotope power source for the next generation of RTGs.
Another role of the RPS is to provide the power for lunar
rovers that will help future lunar astronauts narrow the field in search of
water ice deposits. Astronauts ideally should not be prospecting for
life-critical resources this task is accomplished with robotics. Astronauts
would arrive to process and set-up wells to begin filtering potable water
sources. The hope is lunar core samples from a depth of 1 meter can be achieved
with a mini drilling platform (mass: 20kg) (Power: < 35W) using the MMRTG as a
power source to operate analysis of subsurface characteristics of crater floors
with pulsed gamma ray/neutron spectrometer and ground-penetrating radar. The
baseline dark side lunar rover concept uses 4 GPHS power modules for a total of
about 50 We BOM in conjunction with a 25 A hr rechargeable batteries
are sufficient to allow science data return and power enough under peak load
usage. The principle mission is to answer the question whether or not
significant quantities of water ice or water-bearing materials are present in
the near-surface layers of the moon. This could be areas of the moon that
exhibit neutron scattering signatures like lunar polar regions give a likely
probability of finding water ice in deposits within permanently-shadowed craters
for example the Peary Crater system. Once landed on the crater bottom the Earth
would never be in view thus telemetry capability must be provided by an orbiting
relay satellite system in 2008.
The largest on record usage of RTG technology is
the Cassini Saturn Mission.
GLOBAL ENERGY MELTDOWN EFFECTS SPACE
TECHNOLOGY
Space commercial and
exploration technology endeavors do not exist in a vacuum isolated from the
resources they depend upon.
 Advances
in space technology is inexorably linked to earthy energy. Without a sufficient
supply of domestic skilled educated and energetic space engineers, scientists,
technicians and natural resources to draw from and manipulate for tomorrows
space technologies its advancements will proceed ever slowly and in some case
wane. Unless remedies are taken to correct ineffectual policies. A major factor
is an unresponsive government's policy toward the fossil-fuel era and the
geopolitical headaches it creates. Jeremy Rifkin's book "The Hydrogen Economy"
once stated the following, "...Geologists will disagree about exactly when
global oil production is likely to peak 2010, 2017, 2020 but they agree that 2/3
of the remaining global oil reserves post-production peak lie in Muslim Arab
countries and they will have the last word on oil." No amount of "creative
accounting" by oil companies, or the search for alternative sources of fossil
fuel (coal, natural gas) can stop the consequences of militant Islamist
takeovers in countries throughout the Middle East at the moment that cheap
processing of global oil production is likely to peak. Emerging economies of
China and India will increase competition for oil, natural gas and coal not to
mention technologies that help increase their sphere of influence such as space
achievements. During the U.S. preeminence in global energy production which
interestingly enough occurred around the same time unprecedented achievements in
human and robotic space explorations (moon landings).
Only where there is a
committed and sustained policy and effort in making a significant break from
past policies of total dependence on fossil fuels and its politics toward
renewable energy technologies such as, nuclear and nuclear/hydrogen (water
splitting) co-generation, the synergistic production of mass quantities of
hydrogen and oxygen by fossil fuels and nuclear energy. These are just a few
examples of arrangements for energy sources especially in the intermediate term
having environmental benefits in reducing CO2. They provide a benefit in using
resources effectively and in the longer term possible nuclear fusion, Lyman
Spitzer's idea of magnetic confinement of hydrogen isotope fuels under its
current moinker ITER and its international partners in France in an effort to
demonstrate the commercial energy parity promise.
All these measures when fully developed will nuclear space power and
propulsion actually be more apt to be implemented making transportation and
productivity on earth and our solar system more of a reality.
SEARS CHICAGO TOWER
ENERGY CONSUMPTION MORE THAN A CITY OF POP.150,000
Cost effective mass quantities of hydrogen + oxygen from
water. The basic idea of a thermochemical cycle is that water can't be "cracked"
in a single attempt, and the necessary temperatures are too high for a nuclear
reactor although the fusion nuclear process have tried without commercial
success. Water splitting into its useful gas components is a two step procedure.
First step, liberates the hydrogen and binds the oxygen so the free energy for
the process is the difference between the two. The second step, liberates the
oxygen from a weaker bond than in water. There are a few ways to extract
hydrogen with nuclear power. The most dominant is the Steam Methane (natural
gas) Reforming (SMR) process using nuclear heating the application of nuclear
heat to the SMR process is estimated to be economically competitive with
conventional fossil-combusting technology and deployable in the near term
(www.cesaremarchetti.org). Another option for mass quantities of hydrogen
production is the use of High-Temperature (>800 K) Electrolysis of Steam (HTES)
this offers better efficiency over conventional water electrolysis process due
to decrease electrode overpotentials and increased oxygen ion diffusivity. HTES
can attain conversion efficiencies in the range of those from thermochemical
processes. HTES process utilizes the solid-oxide technology developed for fuel
cells. A conceptual design of an HTES plant attached to a 600MWth
reactor with modular units on rail -transport could be manufactured in a factory
and installed at the reactor site the modules could each produce ~0.18 kg (2000
normal liters) of hydrogen per second and require an electrical input of ~20MWe.
Small quantities can even be achieved for personal use by fuel cells
generators/cars (distributed generation) for the single residential home owner.
In the final analysis humans
have had and will have the largest impact on Earth affecting global climate by
the energy regime it chooses and as a barometer of its cascading effects
government has even decided to place the Polar Bear's dramatic decline in
population on the endangered species list recently as a possible indictor of
just how acute the effects of centuries of release of major greenhouse gases
like CO2, methane and nitrous oxide. Geosat monitoring data on earth climate
changes occurring over the last decades point to a common trait the earth is
experiencing
warming trends. And
yet other studies indicate there's a natural 1500 year solar driven cycle
attributed to global warming by release of added CO2 and it has occurred before,
thus it would be prudent no matter which 'camp of climatology' you might
subscribe natural or human artificially induced. All of these changes seem to
point toward the 'negative' side of the climate equation which could be balanced
by rectifying the offending energy use for a sustained period of decades to
monitor its effects on climate. Of course one should take care if the assumption
be made to harken back to a period before the industrial revolution before a
time of large scale coal burning. Europe was coping with a mini ice age in years
1350 -1850. We might now control climate and of course it isn't beyond the realm
of possibility that if we have been able to effect the Earth's climate, maybe we
could correct imbalances on our home planet or even make Mars more of a habitat
for human colonialization by manufacturing the tenuous Martian climate toward a
more "Human Friendly" climate now that recent evidence of Martian water ooze
down a ravine as Mars photos by the
Mars
Global Surveyor would indicate the possibility of flowing water on the
surface of Mars. What might be indicated as the right climatic treatment for
Earth might not be indicated for a case on Mars. Climate greenhouse gases (GHG's)
could be better used on Mars to increase Mars surface temperatures and thus melt
some of the Martian water ice locked up just below the surface in place as
underground cisterns or natural aquifers to prevent rapid sublimation loss
toward space.
EXPONENTIAL CARBON ENERGY GROWTH SPEAK IN A FINITE
WORLD
Now that we're at the "Hubbert Peak" the American geologist
(Dr. M. King Hubbert) made a 1969 future oil productivity prediction of
shortages by year 2000. The other side of this debate is the United States
Geological Survey (USGS) prediction of peak oil production limit reached by year
2036 and a U.S. estimate pegged at 365 million barrels seems overblown unless
Iraq is considered as being the 51st state of the United States
according to author Ken Deffeyes in his book, "Beyond Oil". The common rule is
by the first quarter century we will see a peak in oil production followed by
rapid downward spiral in petroleum production. Hubert acknowledged nuclear
energy as a response to the growing shortage of oil and natural gas.
Where do we go from here?
The year 2007 is suppose to be the kick-off year for
construction of "New" type nuclear power plants.
Ok...so what does this mean? And how does this relate to space
transportation technology?
In my view everything. As noted before in our society politics plays the
most dominant role in scientific development. If it's a question of energy
policy on earth or in space; politics and its policy trumps science.
You can't have a visionary proactive space program to offer a public unless
clean, efficient, safe and accessible energy is available to everyone. Both
nuclear and hydrogen are key components of any future space transportation
needs. In the short term with continued development in nuclear power and
propulsion for use in resource exploration and commercialization fuels like
hydrogen, oxygen and noble gas on earth and extraterrestrial resource in situ
manufacturing of nuclear and chemical fuels is a guarantee toward a robust space
program worth the public's attention and admiration
"The
great social advantage of adopting a hydrogen energy regime is that energy,
will be cheap in one part of the country as another, so that industry will
be greatly decentralized."
John
Burden Sanderson Haldane
[ PART I ]
ref reads:
-Nuclear Production of Hydrogen, International
Nuclear Societies Council (INSC), November 2004
-Space Nuclear Power: Opening The Final Frontier, Gary L. Bennett, AIAA.
-NASA: Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Mars Science
Laboratory Mission, Nov. 2006
-NASA DATA.
special thanks to: McMaster University Nuclear
Studies listserve.
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